Solar Cells: Types and Applications 1st ed.

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1 Introduction to Solar Cells
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 N-Type Semiconductor
1.1.2 P-Type Semiconductor
1.2 Solar Cell as p–n Junction Diode
1.2.1 Construction
1.2.2 Working Mechanism
1.2.3 I-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell
1.2.4 I-V Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array
1.2.5 Equivalent Circuit and Analysis of a Solar Cell as a Diode
1.3 Parameters of a Solar Cell
1.3.1 Short-Circuit Current (ISC)
1.3.2 Open-Circuit Voltage (VOC)
1.3.3 Fill Factor (FF)
1.3.4 Efficiency (Η)
1.3.5 Characteristic Resistance (RCH)
1.3.6 Series Resistance (RS)
1.3.7 Shunt Resistance (RSH)
1.3.8 Quantum Efficiency (QE)
1.3.9 Spectral Response (SR)
1.4 History of Solar Cells
1.5 How Do Solar Panels Work?
1.5.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells
1.5.2 The Solar Panels
1.5.3 Types of Solar Panel
1.6 The Solar Spectrum
1.7 Solar Cells Generations
1.7.1 First-Generation Solar Cells
1.7.2 Second-Generation Cells
1.7.3 Third-Generation Cells
1.7.4 Fourth-Generation Cells
1.8 Global Solar Power Market
1.9 Cost of Solar Energy
1.10 Factors Affecting the Cost of Solar Cell
1.11 Applications
1.12 Summary
1.13 Points to Remember
References
2 Silicon-Based Solar Cells
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Silicon Substrates
2.3 Processing Steps to Obtain High-Quality Si Substrates
2.3.1 Refining
2.3.2 Crystal Growth
2.3.3 Cutting and Polishing
2.4 Cleaning Steps to Use Si Substrates for Further Application
2.5 Solar Cell Processing Technologies
2.5.1 Texturization
2.5.2 Formation of p–n Junction
2.5.3 Doping by Diffusion
2.5.4 Ion Implantation
2.5.5 Edge Isolation
2.5.6 Anti-reflection Coating
2.5.7 Metallization
2.5.8 Testing and Sorting
2.6 Thin-Film PV Cells and Amorphous Silicon
2.7 Applications
2.7.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
2.7.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
2.7.3 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
2.8 Summary
2.9 Important Timelines
References
3 CIGS-Based Solar Cells
3.1 Introduction
3.2 c-Si versus CIGS Solar Cells
3.3 Optical Bandgap
3.3.1 Issues Related to High Bandgap CIGS Layer
3.3.2 Graded Bandgap CIGS Layer
3.4 Implications of Sodium Incorporation
3.5 CIGS Film Deposition Approaches
3.5.1 Co-evaporation Approach
3.5.2 Sequential Deposition Approach: Selenization/Sulfurization
3.5.3 Non-vacuum Deposition Approach
3.6 Buffer Layer and Transparent Conducting Oxide
3.7 Flexible CIGS Solar Cells
3.8 Factors Affecting the Performance of CIGS Solar Cells
3.9 Applications
3.10 Summary
3.11 Important Timelines
References
4 Organic Solar Cells
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Historical Background
4.3 Active Layer Materials
4.3.1 Electron Donor
4.3.2 Electron Acceptor
4.4 Fabrication Approaches
4.5 Basic Working Principles
4.5.1 Exciton Generation
4.5.2 Exciton Diffusion
4.5.3 Exciton Dissociation
4.5.4 Charge Transfer
4.5.5 Charge Collection
4.6 OSC Device Architectures
4.6.1 Single-Layer Architecture
4.6.2 Bilayer Heterojunction Architecture
4.6.3 Bulk Heterojunction Architecture
4.6.4 Tandem BHJ Architecture
4.7 Significant Parameters Affecting the Morphology of Photoactive Layer
4.7.1 Material Composition
4.7.2 Effect of Solvent
4.7.3 Solvent Annealing
4.7.4 Thermal Annealing
4.7.5 Additive
4.8 Applications
4.9 Summary
4.10 Important Timelines
References
5 Perovskite Solar Cells
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Historical Background
5.3 Structure of Perovskites
5.4 Development of Different Device Configurations
5.4.1 Liquid Electrolyte Dye-Sensitized Structure
5.4.2 Solid State Mesoscopic Structure
5.4.3 Meso-Superstructured Structure
5.4.4 Regular Structure
5.4.5 Planar n-i-p Heterojunction Structure
5.4.6 Planar p-i-n Heterojunction Structure
5.5 Fabrication Methodologies of Perovskites for PV Application
5.5.1 Perovskite Layer Fabrication Approaches
5.5.2 Large-Scale Manufacturing Techniques
5.6 Finding a Solution to PSCs’ Instability Dilemma for Practical Implementation
5.6.1 The Golden Triangle
5.6.2 Tackling Stability Concern
5.6.3 Accelerated Aging Studies and Mixed Stability Tests
5.6.4 The Actual Costs of Perovskite Solar Cells
5.7 Applications
5.8 Summary
5.9 Important Timelines
References
6 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Solar Cells
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basic Operating Principles and Device Architecture
6.3 Bulk Heterojunction OIH Solar Cells
6.3.1 Benefits of Bulk Heterojunction Configuration
6.3.2 Issues Responsible for Constrained Performance
6.3.3 Inverted-type Hybrid Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells
6.4 Bilayer Heterojunction OIH Solar Cells
6.5 Materials
6.5.1 Ideal Properties of Photoactive Layer
6.5.2 Significant Material Groups
6.6 Performance Restrictions
6.6.1 Nanoparticle Surface Chemistry
6.6.2 Nanomorphology
6.7 Applications
6.8 Summary
6.9 Important Timelines
References
7 Solar Cell Modeling Parameters
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Equivalent Circuit Models
7.2.1 Single-Diode Model
7.2.2 Double-Diode Model
7.2.3 Single-Diode Model Versus Double-Diode Model
7.2.4 Models Other Than Single- and Double-Diode Model
7.3 Summary
References
8 Characterization Techniques
8.1 Introduction
8.2 External Quantum Efficiency
8.2.1 Apparatus for Measuring External Quantum Efficiency (EQE)
8.2.2 Calibration Process for Measuring External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) of a Solar Cell
8.2.3 Internal Quantum Efficiency of a Solar Cell from Reflectance Data
8.2.4 QE Measurement Data
8.2.5 Spectral Response
8.2.6 Solar Cell Current
8.3 Energy Conversion Efficiency
8.4 I–V Curve
8.4.1 I–V Curve of a Solar Cell
8.4.2 Solar Panel I–V Characteristic Curves
8.5 The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array
8.5.1 Solar Array Parameters
8.6 Illumination for I–V Curves
8.6.1 Illumination Sources
8.6.2 Deviations from Air Mass 1.5
8.7 I–V Curve Measurement Apparatus
8.7.1 Light Sources for Testing a Solar Cell
8.7.2 Temperature Control
8.8 Electrical Measurement
8.8.1 Calibration
8.8.2 Comparing Jsc from QE and IV Measurements
8.8.3 Spectral Mismatch
8.9 Summary
References
9 Future in Solar Cell Technology
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 The Rising Significance of Solar Energy
9.1.2 Current State of Solar Cell Technology
9.1.3 The Future Horizon: Advancements and Possibilities
9.1.4 Addressing Challenges for a Sustainable Solar Future
9.1.5 The Road Ahead: An Integrated Energy Landscape
9.2 Material Benefits
9.3 Efficiency Drive
9.4 Band Together
9.5 Tricks of the Light
9.6 Light Trapping and Waveguiding
9.7 Spectral Shaping and Photon Upconversion
9.8 Defect Engineering for Charge Carrier Transport
9.9 Energy-Selective Contacts for Reduced Recombination Losses
9.10 Future Perspectives
9.11 Summary
9.12 Important Timelines
9.13 Points to Remember
References

Citation preview

Sandeep Arya Prerna Mahajan

Solar Cells Types and Applications

Solar Cells

Sandeep Arya · Prerna Mahajan

Solar Cells Types and Applications

Sandeep Arya Department of Physics University of Jammu Jammu and Kashmir, India

Prerna Mahajan Department of Physics University of Jammu Jammu and Kashmir, India